Gender-Atypical Learning Experiences For men Reduce Occupational Sex Segregation

By Maik Hamjediers

Women and men work in different occupations. Such sex segregation is a prominent feature of labor markets in most countries and has been relatively stable over the last two decades after a period when women moved into male dominated positions. Such occupational sex segregation perpetuates stereotypes of women and men being differently suited for various occupations. Segregation underlies gender inequalities in occupations, such as the gender wage gap.

In many countries there are initiatives to counteract occupational sex segregation by attracting women into occupations that are numerically dominated by men. Prominent examples of such initiatives include SciGirls Connect, summer schools for girls in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM), and an annual Girls’ Day in Germany. Such programs provide female students with opportunities to meet women working in these fields, to build their skills and self-confidence and ultimately encourage them to pursue careers in male-dominated fields. By contrast, similar programs of gender-atypical learning experiences are rare for men, despite men’s reluctance to enter female-dominated occupations. With shrinking employment opportunities in traditionally male-dominated, blue-collar occupations and increasing demands for workers in the social service sector, the inattention to men becomes increasingly relevant. To spur men’s interest in such occupations, a viable option could be to establish new programs that expose men to gender-atypical learning experiences.

Assessing whether such programs would be effective in reducing occupational sex segregation is difficult because any association between men’s participation in gender-atypical learning experiences and their subsequent occupational choices could be based on respondent bias, with some men aspiring to female-dominated occupations and seeking gender-atypical learning experiences as a preparation for they career. To answer the question as to whether such programs might be effective, we would need an experiment that randomizes participation in programs of gender-atypical learning experiences to assess whether gender-atypical learning experiences for men affect their likelihood of subsequently entering female-dominated occupations.

My new article in Gender & Society presents just such an experiment. I analyzed data on the German civilian service, which was a social sector alternative to compulsory military service. Men participated in it for nine months and served in nursing homes, childcare institutions, hospitals, or welfare organizations. Its suspension in 2011 mimics an experiment, with early born cohorts of men being exposed to gender-atypical learning experiences during the civilian service, and later born cohorts being not exposed to atypical gender experience as they did not have to serve.

So, what did I do? I compared across birth years the trend in participation rates in the civilian service to the trend of men’s probability of working in female-dominated occupations in their first job (based on the German Microcensus of 1% of the population and data from the German social security insurance registry). The main finding is depicted below in a slightly adjusted figure from the article. The blue line denotes participation rates in the civilian service, and the red line shows how men’s entrances into female-dominated occupations decreased in parallel to the suspension of the civilian service. On average, 19 percent of a birth cohort before 1990 participated in the civilian service and 10.7 percent of men entered female-dominated occupations. After the suspension, only 8.2 percent of men entered female-dominated occupations, indicating a drop of 2.5 percentage points (adjusted for age and educational attainment). This effect amounts to 9,200 men per birth year missing from female-dominated occupations due to the suspension of the civilian service.

This suggests gender-atypical learning experiences within the civilian service indeed affected men’s occupational choices. Once the civilian service was suspended, fewer men entered female-dominated occupations. In the research article, I provide evidence that precludes alternative explanations for the observed pattern and I also draw on additional data from a survey of civilian service participants. These analyses support the main finding and suggest skills learned in the civilian service and an increased awareness of social problems were the underlying mechanisms that prompted men to pursue occupations in early education, social work, or elderly care after having served.

What are the main take-aways from this? First, the analyses provide causal evidence that programs of gender-atypical learning experiences can foster men’s entrances into female-dominated occupations. To be sure, some men reported the civilian service did not change their occupational aspirations because the on average lower wages in female-dominated occupations persisted as a barrier for them. For those who do not utilize gender-atypical learning experiences by pursuing similar occupations, such learning experiences come with some opportunity costs (as they forego the opportunity to acquire skills that are beneficial for alternative occupational choices). Nevertheless, the fact that programs of gender-atypical learning experiences can encourage men to enter female-dominated occupations more often may also increase wages in their respective occupations as they presence counters the gendered cultural devaluation of those occupations. Accordingly, programs of gender-atypical learning experiences should not be limited to women.

My study also informs discussions about mandatory community services that have been proposed in the US and France. Building on evidence from the German civilian service, mandatory community services could not only foster civic engagement, but might also have a positive side-effect of counteracting occupational sex segregation. In the case of the civilian service, participation was not based on a gender norm violation but rather the rejection of military service. Incorporating gender-atypical learning experiences into mandatory community service in other projects could avoid drawing attention to issues of gender that otherwise may keep men from exploring female-dominated occupations.

Maik Hamjediers is a research associate and doctoral candidate at the Department of Social Sciences of the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. His research focuses gender inequalities in the labor market and family, and quantitative methodology. His work has been published in the European Sociological Review, Work & Occupations, and Social Sciences.